Implications Career Counseling Based On Hollands Theory

Implications C atomic number 18er Counseling Based On geneva theoryIt is drop buoy geneva view that go choice and c beer adjustment repre direct an extension of a per male childs soulfulnessality. People demo themselves, their interests and set, by means of their charm choices and experience. In his theory, Holland assumes that hoi pollois impressions and generalizations ab come in train, which he refers to as stereo figures, be generally accurate. By work orient and refining these stereotypes, Holland assigns both mint and work milieus to limited categories.Holland (1966, 1973, 1992, 1997) has published flipper books that explain his typological theory. Each book represents an update and a further-refined magnetic variation of earlier work in the teaching of his theory. The -August 1999 issue of The Journal of vocational Behavior contains 12 articles which describe washbasin Hollands 40-year contribution to charge devisement theory. Two psychological invento ries were important in the development of his theory the vocational Preference Inventory (Holland, i985b) and the Self-Directed Search (Holland, 1994). These instruments, in different agencys, bill self-perceived competencies and interests, which argon an sagaciousness of an individuals someoneality. Holland (Holland, 1997) recognizes that his theory can account for unless(prenominal) a portion of the variables that underlie c atomic number 18er admition. He is forgive in stating that, his nonional model can be affected by age, gender, social class, intelligence, and cultivation. with that understood, he goes on to specify how the individual and the environment interact with each separate through the breeding of sise typesRealistic fact-finding, delicious, sociable, adventuresome, and customary. Both individuals and environments consist of a combination of types.The Six casesRealisticThe Realistic environs The Realistic (R) environment makes physical demands on the soul. much(prenominal) work settings cast off tools, machines, or animals that the individual manipulates. In such a setting, individuals argon required to have technical competencies that give allow them to do such things as pitch machines, repair electronic equipment, drive cars or trucks, herd animals, or deal with separatewise forcible aspects of their environment. The readiness to work with things is much(prenominal) important than the ability to interact with other people. Construction sites, factories, and auto garages be examples of environments that provide machinery or other things for Realistic people to master. Some Realistic environments require a broad deal of physical agility or strength, such as roofing, outside painting, and pipe fitting. These environments whitethorn be hazardous and may shit much physical illness or accidents than other work environments.The Realistic character Type Realistic people be appargonnt to enjoy ingestion tools or machines in their hobbies or work. They tend to seek to develop competencies in such commonwealths as plumbing, roofing, electrical and automotive repair, farming, and other technical disciplines. They are apt to ilk courses that are very practical and teach the riding habit of windup(prenominal) or physical skills. Realistic people are promising to have little tolerance of abstract and theoretical description Often, they arise problems, whether mechanical or personal, in a practical or problem-solving path. They are probably to value inquiringThe Investigative Environment The Investigative (I) environment is cardinal in which people search for solutions to problems through mathematical and scientific interests and competencies. In such a situation, people are stir to use abstruse and abstract intellection to solve problems creatively. Examples of occupations that offer the opportunity to use analytical thinking skills are computer programmer, physician, mathematicia n, biologist, science teacher, veterinarian, and research and development manager. In each of these environments, cautious and critical thinking is valued. Individuals are promising to government issue in to use logic and precise methodical thinking in align to find solutions to problems in these knits. These jobs require that people use their intellect to work independently to solve problems. They are non required or encouraged to use human relations skills to solve problems, nor are they credibly to rent to use thachines. For example, a computer programmer .uses logic to figure out solutions to problems (an Investigative environment), whereas the computer technician works with machinery and may assemble it or fix it (a Realistic environment).The Investigative Personality Type The Investigative person is likely to enjoy puzzles and challenges that require the use of intellect Such a person is apt to enjoy learning and to feel confident about his or her ability to solve mat hematical and scientific problems. Such people very much enjoy reading about science and discussing scientific issues. They seek to work independently to solve problems such as mathematical or scientific questions. They are likely to enjoy courses in math, physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and other physical or biological sciences. They are not likely to enjoy supervising other people or dealing directly with personal problems, but they may enjoy analyzing or searching for solutions to psychological problems.estheticThe artistic Environment The Aitistic (A) environment is one that is free and open, encouraging creativity and personal literalizeion. Such an environment offers much freedom in growing products and answers. Examples of occupations in which people can use creative and unconventional ways to express themselves are musician, fine artist, and freelance writer. Such settings allow people to dress the way they wish, keep on few.appointments, and structure their own time. These work environments encourage personal and emotional expression rather than logical expression. If tools are utilize, they are used to express oneself (for example, a clarinet or a paintbrush) rather than as a means to complete a task (for example, an electricdrill or a wrench). The Artistic Personality Type The Artistic person likes the opportunity to express himself or herself in a free and un systematic way, creating music, art, or scripted material. Such people may use instruments to do this, such as a violin, the voice, sculpting tools, or a word transitor. They are likely to necessitate to improve their ability in language, art, music, or writing. Originality and creativity are particularly important in expression. To use a painted by-numbers fit would be deeply offensive to an Artistic type, who needs and desires the opportunity to express herself or himself in a free and open manner. A fine Artistic type would dislike technical writing and would prefer writi ng fiction or poetry.SocialThe Social Environment The Social (5) environment is one that encourages people to be flexible and showing of each other, where people can work with others through economic aiding with personal or race problems,others, affecting others spiritually, and being socially responsible. The Social environment emphasizes human values such as being idealistic, kind, friendly, and generous. These ideals most familiarly exist in the education, social service, and mental health professions. Examples of these occupations are elementary tutor teacher, picky education teacher, high school teacher, marriage counselor, counseling psychologist, speech therapist, school superintendent, and psychiatrist.The Social Personality Type The Social person is interested in helping people through teaching, helping with personal or vocational problems, or providing personal services. Social people enjoy solving problems through discussion and teamwork rather than through delegati on. Preferring to talk and resolve complex problems that may be ethical or idealistic in nature, they practically occupy to avoid functional with machines. They seek out environments where they can use verbal and social skills, such as in education, welfare, and mental health.EnterprisingThe Enterprising Environment The Enterprising (E) environment is one where people manage and bow others in order to attain organizational or personal goals. These are situations where finance and economic issues are of prime importance and risks may be taken to achieve rewards. In such an environment,- people tend to be self-confident, sociable, and assertive.Its an environment where promotion and power are important, and persuasion and selling take place. Examples of Enterprising environments are sales work, buying, business management, restaurant management, politics, real estate, the simple eye market, insurance, and lobbying. All of these environments provide the opportunity for power, stat us, and wealth.The Enterprising Personality Type The acquisition of wealth is particularly important for Enterprising people. They enjoy being with others and like to use verbal skills in order to sell, persuade, or lead. They tend to be assertive and popular, trying to take on leadership positions. They enjoy working with people but prefer to persuade and manage rather than to help. ceremoniousThe courtly Environment Organization and planning best describe the Conventional (C) environment. Much of the Conventional environment is an office environment, where one needs to keep records, file papers, copy materials, and organize reports. In addition to written material, the Conventional environment includes mathematical materials, such as bookkeeping and story records. Word processing, calculating, and copy machines are the type of equipment that is form in a Conventional environment. Competencies that are needed to work hearty in a Conventional environment are clerical skills, an ability to organize, dependability, and an ability to follow directions.The Conventional Personality Type. The Conventional person is one who values specie, being dependable, and the ability to follow rules and orders. These people prefer being in control of situations and not dealing with ambiguous requests. They enjoy an office environment where their values of earning money and following rules, regulations, and guidelines can be met. Their strengths are their clerical and numerical ability, which they use to solve unequivocal problems in their environment Their relationshipsthey tend to be order toward accomplishing tasks and establish approach to problems.Hollands Theory and Implications for Career Counseling backside Hollands typological theory of persons and environments is regarded as the most influential in the field of career counseling (Brown, 2002), but this has not carried over to the field of higher(prenominal) education and donnishian advising ( immaterial, Feldma n, Ethington, 2000). This conundrum led us to explore whether or not Hollands theory and research were applicable and could shed lessen on the behavior and organization of college faculty and learners, which could ultimately improve the authority of academicianianianian advising and career counseling. This article summarizes the consequents of our exploration.As colleges and universities have grown in size, scope, and organizational complexity, some school-age childs have found it difficult to find a home (Astin, 1984). While students may identify with a student organization, fireside hall, or activity program, we believe that the academic department is the entity where students are likely to find important mentors, peers, dissemblement, direction, and inspiration. schoolman departments have an inherent, alter mixture of characteristics that are attaind by the interests and behaviors of the faculty. If students can recognize, polariate, and understand these diverse academic environments and the faculty who occult them with reckon to Hollands theoretical model, we believe they are more than likely to find a place within the university that provide increase their satisfaction, involvement, and persistence.Hollands person-environment interaction theory is especially important to scholars and practitioners in education and psychology. John Holland pioneered in measureing the environments of colleges and universities and their influence on students. His research has been central in the development of knowledge about nonacademic accomplishments.Hollands Theoretical ContributionsMany inventories and career assessment tools use the typology to enable individuals to categorize their interests and personal characteristics in terms of combinations of the half(a) dozen types Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, or Conventional. Hollands typological theory (Holland, 1997) specifies a theoretical connection in the midst of pers onality and environment that makes it possible to use the same(p) RIASEC classification system for both persons and handle of reflect or occupations.According to RIASEC theory, if a person and an environment have the same or similar codes, e.g., Investigative person in an Investigative environment, then the person will likely be satisfied and persist in that environment (Holland, 1997). This satisfaction will emergence from individuals being able to express their personality in an environment that is supporting and includes other persons who have the same or similar personality traits. It should be noted that neither people nor environments are exclusively one type but rather combinations of all six types. Their prevalent type is an mind of an ideal, modal type. The profile of the six types can be described in terms of the degree of differentiation (flat or uneven profile), consistency ( take aim of resemblance of interests or characteristics on the RIASEC hexagon for the fir st two letters of a three-letter Holland code), or identity (stability characteristics of the type). Each of these factors moderates predictions about the behavior related to the congruence level between a person and an environment. Persons and environments are typically described proportionally in terms of the most highly weighted three of the six Holland types, e.g., Lawyer, ESI Accounting, CEI.The environments of college campuses, fields of cogitation, work positions, and occupations can also be classify use the RIASEC system (G. Gottfredson Holland, 1996). Hollands early efforts with the National Merit Scholarship plenty (NMSC) and the American College Testing Program enabled him to look at colleges and academic disciplines as environments. It is important to note that RIASEC theory had its roots in higher education and later focussinged on occupations. However, almost any social setting, e.g., a family-owned business, a classroom, or a work group, might be characterized i n terms of a RIASEC environment. Every aspect of the theory can be applied to different kinds of environments.L. S. Gottfredson and Richards (1999) traced the history of Hollands efforts to classify educational and occupational environments. Holland signly studied the numbers of incumbents in a particular environment to classify occupations or colleges, but he later moved to study the characteristics of the environment independent of the persons in it. College catalogs and descriptions of academic disciplines were among the public records used to study institutional environments. Astin and Holland (1961) developed the Environmental Assessment Technique (EAT) while at the NMSC as a method for cardment college environments.Success in measuring faculty and the curriculum led Richards to explore differences in environments in Japanese (Richards, 1973) and British Commonwealth universities (Richards, 1974), U. S. law schools (Richards, 1987b), and Historically Black colleges (Richards , 1987a). For example, Richards found that Japanese universities placed less emphasis on the Artistic area and more on the Realistic area than U.S. universities. The most recent instruments for measuring environments are the Position Classification Inventory (PCI G. Gottfredson Holland, 1991), a direct theory-based measure of occupational environments, and the Environmental Identity Scale (EIS Holland, 1997). These instruments make it possible to study college faculty directly and thus advance the study of academic disciplines and their cause on college students.Those who study or provide services to college students need to understand the importance of Hollands RIASEC theory. For example, Day and Rounds (1998) reported that the RIASEC typology was used similarly by ethnically diverse groups of U.S. students to organize tuition about their interests and options. This means that varied cultural subgroups in the United States have a sufficiently common social and educational experi ence that RIASEC theory and related practical applications can be applied to almost everyone. More recently, Tracey and Darcy (2002) found that college students whose schema for organizing information about interests and occupations differed from Hollands RIASEC structure had less career certainty and more career in finish. This finding suggests that the RIASEC hexagon may have a normative proceeds regarding the classification of occupations and fields of study.DefinitionsAlthough the terms academic advising and career counseling are familiar, it is important to define them as they are used in this article. Ender, Winston, and miller (1984) defined developmental academic advising as a systematic process based on a close student-advisor relationship intended to attend to students in achieving educational, career, and personal goals through the utilization of the full range of institutional and community resources. The distinctions between academic advising and career counseling ar e mainly a matter of scope and emphasis. Career counseling is a broader, more comprehensive term not limited to educational settings. However, both functions involve a process of individual or small group interventions to help persons use information to make educational and occupational decisions that are logical with their personal goals, values, interests, and skills. We believe that a theory that informs career counseling, such as John Hollands RIASEC theory, can also inform academic advising.Academic advising is more narrowly focused on college and university students and life/career decision making related to curricular and co-curricular activities. Creamer (2000) defined it as an educational activity that depends on valid explanations of complex student behaviors and institutional conditions to process college students in making and executing educational and life plans.Traditional act of Hollands Theory in College SettingsThe most prevalent strategy used by scholars is to define proceeding in terms of the further acquisition, growth, or development of individuals initially tumid characteristics that is, the competencies, values, interests, and attitudes associated with their dominant or ancient personality type. For example, in our recent book (Smart, Feldman, Ethington, 2000), Academic Disciplines Hollands Theory and the memorise of College Students and readiness, we tested the validity of the congruence effrontery by examining the extent to which college students with dominant Investigative, Artistic, Social, and Enterprising personality types who entered congruent and incongruent academic environments differed on their development of Investigative, Artistic, Social, and Enterprising abilities and interests, respectively. Separate analyses were conducted for each of the quad personality types. Our findings provided rather clear support for the congruence assumption, though the evidence was decidedly stronger for students with Artistic and I nvestigative personality types than for those with Enterprising or Social personality types.The logic that flows from the traditionalistic definition of doing illustrated in our and others findings is that students who enter congruent academic environments are more likely to be boffo and to exhibit higher levels of achievement. Conversely, students who select academic environments that are incongruent with their personality types are likely to be less successful or to manifest lower levels of achievement than would be expected.Education is of course a nurturing profession, and our task, especially as teachers and counselors, is to assist students in their efforts to be successful throughout their college experiences. Given the conceptual appeal of Hollands theory and the accumulative evidence in support of the congruence assumptionthough often of modest magnitudecounselors and others have embraced the theory in their efforts to assist students in their efforts to successfully nav igate the complexities and challenges of their college experiences. In so doing, the typical advice given students is to select academic major league (i.e., environments) that are congruent with their personality types. The strategy is simple and straightforward given the exemplary instruments developed by Holland and his colleagues to assess students personality and academic environment types simply (1) assess students personality types using such set up instruments as the SDS or the SCII, (2) look up academic majors that are similar to the students personality types using such reputable references as the vocabulary of Holland Occupational Codes (Gottfredson Holland, 1996) or The Educational Opportunities Finder (Rosen, Holmberg, Holland, 1994), and (3) advise students to select academic majors that are congruent with their personality types. This has been, in my opinion, the typical or traditional approach to research on the validity of the congruence assumption of Hollands t heory and the use of his theory by counselors and others to assist students in the selection of academic majors in which they have the greatest likelihood of being successful and satisfied.All this is predicated on the selection of academic majors that are congruent with students initially prominent characteristics (i.e., their dominant personality types). The visual modality of a college education that evolves from this strategy is one characterized by assisting students to further develop their radical or dominant interests and abilities they had as freshmen. To venture from this tried and authoritative path was assumed to lead to dissatisfaction, failure, and dropout.An Alternative Application of Hollands Theory in College SettingsSomething seemed amiss or disquieting to me as a result of such investigations of the congruence assumption in this manner. Our definition of achievement and the research strategies we employ are essentially silent as to what students who entered inc ongruent academic environments learned in those environments because our definition and strategy of learning or achievement focused only on students further development of their initially prominent characteristics a reach, that is, the competencies, values, interests, and attitudes associated with their dominant personality type.This conceptual and analytical approach seems unfulfilling and problematic in college settings given that American higher education has historically sought to promote student growth and learning in a broad repertory of competencies and interests. This repertoire is evident in the various taxonomies of college student outcomes developed by Bowen (1977), Lenning, Lee, Micek, and Service (1977), Ewell (1984), the Association of American Colleges (1985), and others. In addition, one need only examine the professed intent of higher education as manifested in their catalogues and in the growing use of performance indicators proposed by statewide coordinating agenc ies to assess the effectiveness of those institutions (Nedwick, 1996). Are students who enter incongruent academic environments really less successful and, as a consequence, their institutions less successful as well?My sense of discomfort led to two recent articles (Feldman, Smart, Ethington, 2001, in press) that are grounded in that portion of Hollands theory that is sociological in purview and implicitly postulates a homogeneous pattern of reinforcement and reward by the respective academic environments irrespective of students levels of congruence with those environments. The approach is referred to as the socialization assumption or hypothesis of Hollands theory.Most important to immortalize here is that students success or achievement within the parameters of the socialization billet is judged by the extent to which they grow in terms of the abilities and interests resistent and rewarded by their chosen environments (i.e., their academic majors) rather than enhancing the ir initially prominent characteristics. That is to say, for example, that while students who select academic majors that are incongruent with their personality types may remain the same or decline in their initially prominent characteristics, they may gain or grow in the abilities and interests reinforced and rewarded by their chosen academic major. This is a very different definition of students success or achievement within the parameters of Hollands theory than the typical or traditional approach discussed earlier (i.e., students ultimate satisfaction and success in college is dependent on their choice of an academic environment that is congruent with their personality type).Socialization personal effects of DisciplinesThe research of Smart et al. (2000) was based on two ideas. First, faculty create academic environments inclined to require, reinforce, and reward the distinctive patterns of abilities and interests of students in a manner consistent with Hollands theory (p. 96). S econd, students are not passive participants in the search for academic majors and careers rather, they actively search for and select academic environments that encourage them to develop further their characteristic interests and abilities and to enter (and be successful in) their chosen career fields (p. 52). In the following paragraphs, we summarize findings relevant to these two ideas.Smart et al. (2000) sought to discover whether or not changes in students over four years were the result of their experiences in their major fields of study (academic discipline). They reasoned that faculty chose to be in academic environments, e.g., academic departments, because of their preferences and values regarding the goals of undergraduate education and their preferred ways of socializing students. Smart et al. held that faculty are the primary representatives of academic environments and the primary contributors to behavior patterns of students who ingest those environments as majors.St udents and Major ChangeThus far, we have concentrated our synopsis on the impact of four disciplines in socializing students toward the development of interests and skills predicted by Hollands (1997) typological theory. But what about the personal choices made by students in selecting a discipline? In order to study this phenomenon, Smart et al. (2000) classified students as primary or secondary recruits. Primary recruits were defined as students initially selecting a discipline and staying in that field over four years. Secondary recruits were those in a different major in the quarter year.When environments (percentage of seniors in each of the four areas) rather than entering students were examined, Smart et al. (2000) found that from 1/3 to 1/2 of the four environments were composed of primary recruits, and about half of the sample were secondary recruits, e.g., the seniors who had changed their majors. This means that almost half the seniors ended up in a discipline that was different from their initial choice. This was most notable in the Artistic environment where 2/3 of the students were secondary recruits from one of the other areas and did not intend to major in the Artistic area in their freshman year. About 1/3 of the students migrating into the Social area came from Investigative, Enterprising, or undecided areas. Students moving into the Investigative area were most likely to come from the Enterprising area, and vice versa. These data debunk the fluid nature of students major selections and the heterogeneous nature of the four environments with respect to the students initial major preferences.Socialization in Relation to Student CharacteristicsThe specific findings of Smart et al. (2000) regarding the impact of socialization for the four discipline environments with respect to student personality characteristics are summarized below. The variability in the socialization styles and the effects of the environments, as well as how socialization effected the students congruence with the environments are described. It will be recalled that a high level match between the person and the environment, e.g., Investigative person in Investigative major, indicates high congruence.Faculty in Investigative environments place primary attention on developing analytical, mathematical, and scientific competencies, with little attention given to character and career development. They rely more than other faculty on formal and structured teaching-learning, they are subject-matter centered, and they have specific course requirements. They focus on examinations and grades. This environment has the highest percentage of primary recruits. All students in Investigative environments increased their abilities and interests in this area, and this was even stronger if they were Investigative students at entry (primary recruits). Investigative students in disciplines outside of the Investigative environment did not increase their abilities and skill s in the Investigative area.Artistic environments focus on aesthetics and an emphasis on emotions, sensations, and the mind. The curriculum stresses learning about belles-lettres and the arts, as well as becoming a creative thinker. Faculty also emphasize character development, along with student freedom and independence in learning. Varied instructional strategies are used. About two-thirds of students in the Artistic environment did not anticipate majoring in the Artistic environment when they entered college. Artistic type students were not more likely to initially select a major in this environment. On the other hand, Artistic students majoring in Artistic environments did have stronger interests and abilities in this area. Students majoring in Artistic environments did show large increases in Artistic abilities and interests, and this was true for both primary and secondary recruits. Artistic personalities not majoring in Artistic environments did not increase their self-rate d interests and abilities over four years.Social environments have a strong community orientation characterized by esteem and warmth. Like the Artistic environment, faculty place value on developing a historical perspective of the field and an emphasis on student values and character development. Unlike the Artistic environment, faculty also place value on humanitarian, teaching, and interpersonal competencies. Colleagueship and student independence and freedom are supported, and informal small group teaching is employed. The socialization effect of the environment was the smallest of the four areas studied and the effects were muddled by gender. Small increases were enter for Social students in Social environments, but these were not much different from those for Social students in other environments. Social disciplines seem to have the to the lowest degree impact and Social students reported the least gains in related interests and abilities. utter another way, the Social envi ronments appear to be the most accepting and least demanding of the four environments studied by Smart et al. (2000).The Enterprising environment has a strong orientation to career preparation and status acquisition. Faculty focus on leadership development, the acquisition and use of power to attain career goals, and striving for common indicators of org